Research Findings

Researchers found that at best, most pregnancy-specific alcohol policies do not affect alcohol use during pregnancy, birth outcomes, or prenatal care utilization. At worst, some of these policies lead to increases in low birthweight and preterm birth and to decreases in prenatal care utilization.

Completed studies:

• Relationships between state-level general population alcohol policies and birth outcomes: Results from 1972-2019 vital statistics. PLoS One. 2025 Aug 4;20(8):e0327559. Subbaraman MS, Berglas NF, Kerr WC, Roberts SCM. PMID: 40758662; PMCID: PMC12321110. 
• Interactive effects between pregnancy-related alcohol policies and state spirits availability on infant and maternal outcomes. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2025;51(4):471-483. Schulte A, Subbaraman MS, Liu G, Kerr WC, Trangenstein PJ, Roberts SCM. PMID: 40523282.
• Trends in U.S. State Alcohol and Other Drug Use During Pregnancy Policies from 2016 to 2020: Policymaking in the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act Era. Subst Use Misuse. 2025;60(6):937-942. Thomas S, Zaugg C, Roberts SCM. PMID: 40146902; PMCID: PMC11950626.
• Understanding the effects of alcohol policies on treatment admissions and birth outcomes among young pregnant people. Alcohol Clin Exp Res (Hoboken). 2025 Feb;49(2):460-475. Berglas NF, Thomas S, Treffers R, Trangenstein PJ, Subbaraman MS, Roberts SCM. PMID: 39675918; PMCID: PMC11829823.
• Medications for Alcohol Use Disorder Among Birthing People With an Alcohol-related Diagnosis. J Addict Med. 2025 Jan-Feb 01;19(1):41-46. Roberts SCM, Liu G, Terplan M. PMID: 39230045; PMCID: PMC11790388.
• The Relationship Between Alcohol Availability and Drink-Driving Policies and Admissions to Substance Use Disorder Treatment During Pregnancy. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2025 May;86(3):349-357. Trangenstein PJ, Berglas NF, Subbaraman MS, Kerr WC, Roberts SCM. PMID: 39105580; PMCID: PMC12081174.
• Associations between alcohol taxes and varied health outcomes among women of reproductive age and infants. Alcohol Alcohol. 2024 Mar 16; 59(3). Subbaraman MS, Schulte A, Berglas NF, Kerr WC, Thomas S, Treffers R, Liu G, Roberts SCM. PMID: 38497162; PMCID: PMC10945295.
• Relationships Between Alcohol Policies and Infant Morbidities and Injuries. Am J Prev Med. 2024 06; 66(6):980-988. Schulte A, Liu G, Subbaraman MS, Kerr WC, Leslie D, Roberts SCM. PMID: 38340136; PMCID: PMC11195443.
• Pregnancy-specific alcohol policies and admissions to substance use disorder treatment for pregnant people in the USA. Alcohol Alcohol. 2023 Nov 11; 58(6):645-652. Berglas NF, Subbaraman MS, Thomas S, Roberts SCM. PMID: 37623929; PMCID: PMC10642603.
• Associations between state-level general population alcohol policies and drinking outcomes among women of reproductive age: Results from 1984 to 2020 National Alcohol Surveys. Alcohol Clin Exp Res (Hoboken). 2023 Sep; 47(9):1773-1782. Subbaraman MS, Sesline K, Kerr WC, Roberts SCM. PMID: 38051149; PMCID: PMC10849058.
• Association of Pregnancy-Specific Alcohol Policies With Infant Morbidities and Maltreatment. JAMA Netw Open. 2023 08 01; 6(8):e2327138. Roberts SCM, Schulte A, Zaugg C, Leslie DL, Corr TE, Liu G. PMID: 37535355; PMCID: PMC10401306.
• Variations by Education Status in Relationships Between Alcohol/Pregnancy Policies and Birth Outcomes and Prenatal Care Utilization: A Legal Epidemiology Study. J Public Health Manag Pract. 2020 Mar/Apr;26 Suppl 2, Advancing Legal Epidemiology(Suppl 2 ADVANCING LEGAL EPIDEMIOLOGY):S71-S83. Roberts SCM, Mericle AA, Subbaraman MS, Thomas S, Kerr W, Berglas NF.  PMID: 32004225; PMCID: PMC7000135.
• Racial differences in the relationship between alcohol/pregnancy policies and birth outcomes and prenatal care utilization: A legal epidemiology study. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019 08 01; 201:244-252. Roberts SCM, Berglas NF, Subbaraman MS, Mericle A, Thomas S, Kerr WC. PMID: 31255852; PMCID: PMC6774667.
• Costs associated with policies regarding alcohol use during pregnancy: Results from 1972-2015 Vital Statistics. PLoS One. 2019; 14(5):e0215670. Subbaraman MS, Roberts SCM. PMID: 31067248; PMCID: PMC6505739.
• State Policies Targeting Alcohol Use during Pregnancy and Alcohol Use among Pregnant Women 1985-2016: Evidence from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Womens Health Issues. 2019 May - Jun; 29(3):213-221. Roberts SCM, Mericle AA, Subbaraman MS, Thomas S, Treffers RD, Delucchi KL, Kerr WC. PMID: 30876695; PMCID: PMC6597255.
• New Estimates of the Mean Ethanol Content of Beer, Wine, and Spirits Sold in the United States Show a Greater Increase in Per Capita Alcohol Consumption than Previous Estimates. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2019 03; 43(3):509-521. Martinez P, Kerr WC, Subbaraman MS, Roberts SCM. PMID: 30742317; PMCID: PMC6397099.
• Differential Effects of Pregnancy-Specific Alcohol Policies on Drinking Among Pregnant Women by Race/Ethnicity. Health Equity. 2018; 2(1):356-365. Roberts SCM, Mericle AA, Subbaraman MS, Thomas S, Treffers RD, Delucchi KL, Kerr WC. PMID: 30560228; PMCID: PMC6296158.
• Drug Use During Pregnancy Policies in the United States From 1970 to 2016. Contemporary Drug Problems. 2018 Dec 1; 45(4):441-459. Thomas TS, Treffers TR, Berglas BN, Drabble DL, Roberts SCM. 
• Associations Between State-Level Policies Regarding Alcohol Use Among Pregnant Women, Adverse Birth Outcomes, and Prenatal Care Utilization: Results from 1972 to 2013 Vital Statistics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2018 Jun 18. Subbaraman MS, Thomas S, Treffers R, Delucchi K, Kerr WC, Martinez P, Roberts SCM. PMID: 29912478; PMCID: PMC6298847.
• Forty Years of State Alcohol and Pregnancy Policies in the USA: Best Practices for Public Health or Efforts to Restrict Women's Reproductive Rights? Alcohol Alcohol. 2017 Nov 01; 52(6):715-721. Roberts SCM, Thomas S, Treffers R, Drabble L. PMID: 29016712; PMCID: PMC5860145.

Issue Briefs and Infographics

• The impact of state-level alcohol and pregnancy policies on birth outcomes and prenatal care use

• Do warnings about drinking during pregnancy work?

• Policies targeting alcohol use during pregnancy are increasingly punitive

• A public health approach to addressing alcohol and drug use in pregnancy

• Policies Targeting Alcohol and Drug Use During Pregnancy Cause Harm